Upward social comparisons describe comparisons between an individual and a comparison target that is considered superior on the dimension of interest. Young children rarely cite progress as a standard for self-appraisal (Frey & Ruble, 1987), possibly because the understanding that comparison information is diagnostic for self-appraisal develops later for temporal than for social comparisons (Butler, 1998a). As Wood notes, there has been considerable emphasis placed on the choices people make when making comparisons and, as a consequence, the power of environmental factors to elicit comparisons has been underestimated. Thus, for instance, sharp decreases in opportunities in one particular domain should entice the individual to switch control investments over to a domain in which behavioral investments are more effective. Downward social comparison involves making comparisons with others who are inferior to, or less fortunate than, oneself in some way. Having lost the comfort of being in a long-term intimate relationship, which was defined by acceptance, it now seems that they are back to their adolescent years in which appearance once again dominates. Yalom (1995) terms this process the installation of hope. Motives for self-enhancement, veridical self-assessment, and self-improvement are themselves motivated, however, by what people are trying to achieve in a given situation, and in the classroom by their achievement goals for schoolwork (Butler, 2000). Downward social comparison occurs when we attempt to create a positive image of ourselves through favorable comparisons with others who are worse off than we are. EN. The self-evaluation motive drives judgments about one’s ability or standing on a dimension, the self-improvement motive refers to attempts to learn how to improve or to be inspired to improve a particular attribute, and the self-enhancement motive reflects an individual’s attempts to maintain, protect, or enhance self-esteem. Finally, if the social comparison target is perceived as similar and the dimension of comparison is relevant, controllability of the dimension becomes important to the construal of the comparison. It is important to contrast this criterion of primary control potential with other criteria of adaptive functioning, which are based on subjective indicators (see, e.g., Baltes & Baltes, 1980; Diener, 1999; Ryff & Keyes, 1995). Controllability has different implications for upward and downward social comparisons. In fact, one of the hallmarks of adaptive control behavior is to manage inter-domain trade-offs of control investments. Many individuals do not feel that appearance or body size is controllable, due to genetic factors, health conditions, or time pressures, or that the appearance standards set are not personally achievable. Do not put limitations on yourself—explore hobbies and options. Thus comparison in terms of popularity was the only comparison category significantly related to the number of Instagram followers—indicating again that Instagram is all about self-promotion. Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. Part of social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) When social comparison is done for the wrong reasons, we run the risk of self-deprecation, especially if we are only looking at upwards comparisons. Interestingly, the relevance of the comparison dimension to an individual can also influence that individual’s perception of similarity to a comparison target. Psychology Definition of DOWNWARD SOCIAL COMPARISON: A method of self-protection where we compare ourselves with people are less well off. By Grade 1, boys were far more likely to cite the more favorable standard and to make a gratifying downward social comparison in the NS-TF condition and a gratifying downward temporal comparison in the NF-TS condition. Wheeler, L., & Miyake, K. (1992). In summary, the effects of upward and downward social comparisons are sensitive to a number of factors that determine the construal of the comparison. Standards and strategies for inferring high and low competence: Social feedback. Regular people can now make their waists look smaller and their breasts look bigger. On a dimension that is seen as either generally or personally unchangeable, an upward comparison will result in lowered self-esteem and depression as the individual is inferior on this dimension and can do nothing about it. Is there a better way, other than an experimental design, to answer this question? Rybarczyk, in Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, 2012. (1981) Downward Comparison Principles in Social Psychology. Furthermore, information-seeking was moderated dramatically by math self-concept among boys but not girls. Specifically, if comparing oneself to a younger version where things might be considered “better” or an older version where one might anticipate that things will be “worse” may cause older adults to make a negative assessment (eg, Suls, Marco, & Tobin, 1991). Downward Social Comparison It is part of human nature that individuals want to feel good. Behel, B.D. Upward social comparison refers to comparing ourselves with others who are better than us on the comparison point. Figure 3. In the normative success-temporal failure (NS-TF) condition, they saw that they had traced more of the path than a peer, but less than on an earlier attempt. Thus, investing in a career to become a world-class athlete is adaptive in terms of promoting long-term and cross-domain primary control only in rare cases of very exceptional ability and training conditions, which would help to transfer the payoffs of success in the select domain to other important life domains and to the life course after the peak performance is no longer attainable. Consistent with this proposal, recent evidence demonstrates that social comparisons can occur outside conscious awareness. In the Chua and Chang (2016) study, pride came with an increase in followers, and disappointment followed a decrease in followers. This evaluative process has been shown to be an adaptive strategy where people selectively choose to evaluate themselves against others who are in a worse position (eg, Taylor, Wood, & Lichtman, 1983). Social comparison theory states that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others. These are secondary control processes, one selective and one compensatory. The use of social media has been linked to increased social comparison and diminished self-esteem. In this model, salience is still seen as driving comparison processes, as it is implausible that we make automatic comparisons on every dimension of self-evaluation with every target. At first, appearance plays a significant role, but this tends to subside as other factors such as interests, personality, goals, and visions are exchanged. A popular trend that has emerged on the Internet in recent years is “fitspiration.” Fitspiration (a blending of the words “fitness” and “inspiration”) arose as an antidote to the trend of “thinspiration” (a blending of “thinness” and “inspiration”) (Ghaznavi & Taylor, 2015). In contrast, secondary control striving is directed at the internal world of the individual and serves to focus, maintain, or expand motivational resources, such as hope for success, self-efficacy, self-esteem, or emotional balance. What would be the dependent (outcome) variable? Moreover, the extent of upward social comparison on Facebook was greater than the extent of, Hu, Manikonda, & Kambhampati, 2014; Ridgway & Clayton, 2016, Hendrickse, Arpan, Clayton, and Ridgway (2017), Ahadzadeh, Pahlevan Sharif, and Ong (2017), Boepple, Ata, Rum, & Thompson, 2016; Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2016. The emotion towards the comparison-person that is evoked through the comparison differs for contrastive and assimilative outcomes: In the former scenario, we might feel contempt for them, whereas, in the latter scenario, we … Middle-aged adults have reported being discouraged from applying for positions because they were too old, or being denied a position subsequent to the interview stage, due to their age. The therapist models the behaviors they want clients to adopt, and shape their behaviors through feedback and selective reinforcement. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(6), 115–131. In an observational study of KI to Grade 4 classrooms, Frey and Ruble (1987) found that boys made more self-congratulatory and fewer self-critical spontaneous comments than girls; boys were also more likely than girls to denigrate and less likely to praise peers' work. Correlations Between Body Mass Index (BMI), Body Esteem, and Comparison to Friends on Social Media Items. Developmental trends in social versus temporal comparison among girls. Rutledge, Gillmor, and Gillen (2013) found that Facebook is more appealing to those who are concerned with their appearance, because it allows them to construct the image that they wish to portray to the public. From Sheldon, P., & Wiegand, A. Leon Festinger. Festinger believed that individuals were interested in accurate self-evaluation and that they had a preference for objective information about their standing on a particular dimension. Two opposing theories are used to predict this effect. For instance, selective primary and selective secondary control may be erroneously invested, when the opportunities for realizing a goal have faded away. Even for individuals with a more nuanced sense of their own aging, disabling events can be regarded as definitively ending important roles or activities in their lives, and often these roles are explicitly tied to aspects of body image. The individual is superior on this dimension and feels confident that this superiority is unlikely to change. This reflects the tenets of social comparison theory. Members also report a strong level of identification with the group, with the result that they are more willing to accept the group's influence. Most commonly, this involves changes in the size and shape of the body resulting from diet and exercise regimes. From the perspective of government bodies, retaining adults beyond retiring age in the workforce is an economic necessity. Interestingly, even babies as young as two months old show a preference for attractive over unattractive faces (Langlois et al., 1987). Whereas individuals facing unpleasant circumstances alone may feel discouraged and pessimistic, when group members recognize that others are improving their motivational levels. Downward comparison occurs when an individual compares to others who are deemed as socially worse off, while upward social comparison acts in the opposite direction. This is traditionally seen as a task for adolescents who have attained a sense of self and are searching to share their identity in an intimate relationship. During the forming stage members are uncertain how to behave, and do not trust one another enough to disclose personal information or to admit they need help. Beginning at ages six to seven, boys, but not girls, showed an increasing preference for upward over, Physical Disability and Body Image in Adults, Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance, Physical Changes and Self-Perceptions in Women’s Aging, Lisa Hollis-Sawyer, Amanda Dykema-Engblade, in, ), a process of strategic comparison known as “, Frieswijk, Buunk, Steverink, and Slates (2004), Robinson-Whelen and Kiecolt-Glaser (1997), Reis-Bergan, Gibbons, Gerrard, and Ybema (2000), Warhurst, van den Broek, Hall, & Nickson, 2009, Negative Social Comparisons on Social Network Sites, Pavica Sheldon, ... James M. Honeycutt, in, Fardouly, Diedrichs, Vartanian, & Halliwell, 2015, Haferkamp, Eimler, Papadakis, & Kruck, 2012, did a study with undergraduate students to determine whether people who have greater exposure to upward social comparisons via SNSs have lower trait self-esteem. For example, if someone wants to feel smart, they may upwardly compare themselves to the top student in the school, or downwardly remind themselves that … In upward comparisons, we compare ourselves with those we believe are better than us in some way; in downward comparisons, we do the opposite. One’s number of followers is another status setter. In one study, Peck and Merighi (2007) found that social comparison accounted for a significant amount of variance associated with physical and mental health suggesting that social comparison plays a critical role in influencing longevity and decreasing depressive symptomatology. Comparing ourselves to friends on social media: The role of body esteem and Instagram gratifications. For each, we ask them how they know. Upward comparisons can serve self-enhancement goals through assimilation and through instilling inspiration and hope for change. Chou and Edge (2012), however, examined the impact of using social media on people’s perceptions of others’ lives. Jutta Heckhausen, in Advances in Psychology, 2000. The internalization of what we perceive others think of us is critical in our development of our sense of self. That makes sense; if Josh is comparing himself to his teammate who only hit 14 home runs last season, he's going to … A psychodynamic therapist uses different techniques than a cognitive-behavior or interpersonal therapist, but these various formats share mechanisms that promote change and sustain well-being. Hence, the focus is on making ourselves feel better about our own situation, assets, or skills. Seeking an intimate relationship in older adulthood may be daunting enough for some to abandon the attempt, opting for the alternative of living the rest of one’s life alone. SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY; DUNNETT'S MULTIPLE COMPARISON TEST; SELF-ENHANCEMENT II; TADOMA METHOD; METHODS ANALYSIS; SOCIAL INTERACTION; CONTROL-MASTERY THEORY ; CONCENTRATION-CAMP SYNDROME; SOCIAL … Students could choose whether to receive their overall percentile score, their scores on each problem in order of presentation, or no information. The psychological benefits of downward comparisons are supported by research showing this strategy to … If you find yourself in the trap of social comparison, feeling somewhat hooked on feelings of superiority from downward social comparison or beating yourself up when you make upward social comparisons, it's important to get out of this mental trap. Techniques such as airbrushing can remove any flaws on a face or body. The results of their experimental study revealed that people who had the most chronic exposure to Facebook (i.e., used it most frequently) tended to have lower trait self-esteem. 3 If you’re worried, there are tons of other ways to cultivate gratitude. C. Which of the following would be important factors to consider when constructing an ad campaign? Since its inception, the initial framework has undergone several advances. If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Downward social comparison acts in the opposite direction. Apply your accumulated wisdom in life decision-making. The results of their experimental study revealed that people who had the most chronic exposure to Facebook (i.e., used it most frequently) tended to have lower trait self-esteem. So from an early age, boys and girls tend to be guided by different self-evaluative motives that orient them to different evaluative strategies and inferences. It’s a fair exchange. One’s roles as caregiver and sexual partner, for example, are apt to be explicitly linked to a sense of oneself as ‘strong’ and ‘attractive’. As therapeutic groups develop over time, members become closely connected to each other emotionally, developing bonds of friendship that are as strong as any they experience in nontherapeutic relationships. Wood, J. V., & VanderZee, K. I. Vogel, Rose, Roberts, and Eckles (2014) did a study with undergraduate students to determine whether people who have greater exposure to upward social comparisons via SNSs have lower trait self-esteem. As a result, the sex difference favoring boys in performance-appraisal increased with age. It is clear that older adults cannot compare positively to this ideal and are likely to internalize a negative view of themselves and of other older adults. controlling for upward and downward social comparison reduced the significance of the path between Facebook use and self-esteem ( b s ⫽⫺ .19 vs. ⫺ .09, t s ⫽⫺ 1.92 vs. For example, if we are concerned with success, we might compare ourselves to someone our age who has made it to the top in his or her career when we are struggling to achieve our next promotion. Downward Social Comparison. Look up words and phrases in comprehensive, reliable bilingual dictionaries and search through billions of online translations. The entire model of four control strategies and a set of optimization strategies for adaptive choice of control goals formed the conceptual basis for the development of a measurement instrument, the OPS scales (optimization in primary and secondary control scales; Heckhausen, Schulz, & Wrosch, 1997). Such an investment in achieving world-class performance in a highly select domain of functioning typically is very risky, because of its high criterion of success. By middle childhood (when children can respond reliably to self-report surveys) and continuing through college, girls reported basing their academic self-efficacy beliefs on social feedback from parents, teachers, and peers far more than did boys. Scores depended on the quality of the strategy, so it was possible to improve during the session. Instead, the individual should remain active in multiple domains, so that narrow dead-end paths are avoided. Downward social comparison occurs when we attempt to create a positive image of ourselves through favorable comparisons with others who are worse off than we are. Instagram. Given the widespread use of SNSs, the purpose of the present set of studies was to examine the impact of chronic and temporary exposure to social media-based social comparison information on self-esteem. Beginning in kindergarten, boys were more likely than girls to give a social comparison reason if they did better rather than worse than the other child or to refer to the social standard in a self-serving manner, for example, by saying that they did better than the superior other, “because his line is crooked.” Boys rated their performance higher than did girls; they also expressed more optimistic expectancies about their future performance. Downward social comparison acts in the opposite direction. Take care of yourself and “listen” to your body. However, other factors that influence the construal of a comparison are thought to operate in the second step. These types of posts can explicitly communicate beauty, but they also encourage social comparisons. The latter, on the other hand, is likely to leave a person feeling positive about themselves and the future, and confident in pursuing social relationships. Yet, if the comparison dimension is changeable, a downward comparison can lead to depression and lowered self-efficacy as the individual feels vulnerable to getting worse on this changeable dimension. There was a weak tendency among the older boys to refer to positive more than negative feedback. In one study Morse and Gergen (1970) had students apply for a job, and they also presented the students with another individual who was supposedly applying for the same job. As these comparisons provide evidence that an individual is not as good as someone else, traditionally they were assumed to lead to negative self-evaluations. Figure 4. Open menu. The second study found that male participants who were shown profiles of more successful men reported a higher perceived divergence between their current career status and their ideal career status when compared with male participants who were shown profiles of less successful individuals. Taylor, S. E., & Lobel, M. (1989). 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